India is one of the centers of human civilization. In terms of the size of its territory and the number of its population, already in the distant past, just as now, it belonged to one of the largest countries in the world.

The geographical location itself favored the formation of a human community that was stable over time. In the south, southwest and southeast, India is bordered by vast expanses of water in the Indian Ocean and the Bay of Bengal. In the north is the highest mountain range in the world - the Himalayas. Mountain barriers separate India in the west from Iran and in the east from Indochina.

In 1922, excavations were carried out in northwestern India, as a result of which two large cities were discovered, named after their location, Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa. Cities with straight and wide streets, built up with two-story brick houses, a sewerage system, and public baths appeared before the eyes of archaeologists. Tools made of bronze and copper were found here: sickles, saws, axes.

The heyday of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa appears to have occurred in the third millennium BC. The sources do not provide reliable information about the political organization and class structure of the Harappan civilization, and also do not answer the question for what reasons the inhabitants left these two capitals of the ancient civilization. There is an assumption that the disaster that befell people occurred in the middle of the 2nd millennium BC.

From this same time, the process of invasion of northern tribes began, calling themselves Aryans and speaking Sanskrit. This language is the progenitor of the family of Indo-European languages, uniting Latin, Romano-Germanic, Slavic and other languages.

The period from the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. until the first half of the 1st millennium BC. called Vedic. Literary monuments have reached us - the Vedas, which later became the sacred books of the Hindus, as well as works of folk epic.

The Vedic period was marked by the formation of a class society, which some historians associate with the wave-like penetration of Indo-Aryan tribes into Indian territory from the north-west that lasted for a number of centuries.

The military leader of the tribe (raja), who had previously been elected by his fellow tribesmen and could be removed, increasingly rose above the tribe, subordinating all governing bodies to himself and transferring his power by inheritance.

The Vedas, especially the most important of them - the Rig Veda, contain detailed information about the decomposition of the tribal system and the formation of the first states. We learn from the Vedas that the power of the raja for a long time was limited by the council of elders, and the clan nobility and priests constituted the ruling elite of society. The main occupation was cattle breeding, and eventually agriculture.

During the settlement of Aryan tribes over an increasingly vast territory and the gradually deepening stratification of rural communities, the clan and military nobility appropriated vast lands and slaves. Social inequality became pronounced, the need arose to suppress the conquered peoples, which led to the creation of the first state formations on the territory of India, which dates back to the second half of the 2nd millennium BC. The process of formation and strengthening of the state in India was long. Authorities arose gradually and were created from tribal government bodies. The states themselves were small for a long time and remained within the territory occupied by a tribe or alliance of tribes.

The process of the development of tribal self-government bodies into state bodies was largely completed by the middle of the 1st millennium BC. The power of the tribal leader (raja) by this time in most Indian tribes had developed into a monarchy.

The Raja was a protégé, as a rule, of the most noble, rich and numerous family. Over time, the Raja's power becomes hereditary. Some government entities took the form of a republic.

The largest and most powerful state in the IV-III centuries. BC. Magadha was under the Mauryan dynasty, who united almost the entire territory of Hindustan under their rule. During this period, agriculture and crafts flourished noticeably in India. Artificial irrigation is used on a large scale.

The creation of a single state on the Hindustan Peninsula contributed to the mutual enrichment of peoples, the flourishing of culture, and the erasure of inter-tribal contradictions. However, the unified state was not destined to exist for long. The central government, supported only by the strength of the army, was unable to keep under control a conglomerate of peoples and tribes that stood at different stages of economic and cultural development.

Social order

There was nothing exceptional in the formation of the state in India. However, this process had the peculiarity that in Ancient India the formation of the state was accompanied by the isolation of certain social groups, which over time turned into closed classes - varnas. The Rig Veda talks about the existence of four varnas.

The first varna included the priestly nobility - the brahmans. Next to the leaders of the Indo-Aryans were their priests, seers and possessed people, who, in a fit of inspiration, uttered the sacred spells of the Vedas. They came from certain families and formed closed associations, whose members strictly protected their secrets from the uninitiated, passing on their knowledge from generation to generation. These priests, as guardians of customs, traditions and supernatural wisdom, were like judges of the tribe, ensuring the maintenance of long-established orders.

The noble families, in which the performance of priestly duties became a profession, constituted the varna of brahmanas. The formation of the priestly elite of the Brahmins was facilitated by their monopolization of religious ceremonies and knowledge of Vedic hymns at a certain stage of historical development. According to official ideas, a brahman is the highest of people. His occupation is the study of sacred books, participation in court, development of laws and regulations.

The royal families and military nobility formed the varna of kshatriyas (endowed with power). This category originally included

Only the Aryans lived, but in the process of assimilation of the conquered tribes, this varna was replenished by local leaders. During the Mauryan period, the kshatriyas, who concentrated military, political and economic power in their hands, began to include mainly those who belonged directly to the royal family and to the category of privileged mercenary warriors. Kshatriyas were the sovereign managers of wealth acquired by war, including captive slaves.

The last two varnas were the varnas of the unprivileged.

The third varna included the bulk of peasants - community members, and it was called vaishya (community worker, householder). The name of this varna comes from the word “vish” - people, tribe, settlement. This is the bulk of the working people - the true demos.

The disintegration of the primitive communal system, constant clashes of tribes, increasing property inequality - these are the main reasons for the appearance of the fourth varna - the shudras, or “people who strayed from their tribe”, in a word, people who stood outside the communal organization and, therefore, deprived of land as the main means of production.

However, the Shudra was not a slave. Despite his oppressed and powerless position, the path to wealth was not closed to him. Among the Shudras one could meet artisans, money lenders, and homeowners. Shudra had a family and children could inherit his property. The liability for the murder of a Shudra was established, but 16 times less than for the careless murder of a Brahman.

And finally, there was the caste of “untouchables”. It was replenished from freed slaves, criminals, and people “without clan or tribe.” The lot of the untouchables was to engage in daily work, the profession of a gravedigger, etc. Communication with them was prohibited for anyone who belonged to the “pure” castes.

In India, like in no other country of the ancient world, class differences took the complete forms of varnas and castes. This feature can be explained by the fact that the formation of class relations in most of Northern India occurred simultaneously with the development of the Ganges Valley, mass movements of tribes and their constant clashes among themselves. Under these conditions, social differentiation often occurred not so much within a clan or tribe, but between them. Therefore, such tribal institutions and ideas as taboos, ritual purity, etc., turned out to be very tenacious and left their mark on the design of class differences.

An important factor that contributed to the preservation of customs and traditions should also be considered the vast tribal world that surrounded the main centers of civilization. This world found it difficult to integrate into class society and tried with all its might to preserve outdated social phenomena and orders developed over centuries.

And one more circumstance. In conditions of ethnic diversity, frequent collapses of some states, tribal unions and the formation of others, the dominant strata of a multi-ethnic society sought to maintain the unity of classes. In this way, the privileges of the highest varnas were ensured, the opportunity to maintain class and estate solidarity with all possible changes in the balance of power between tribes and borders between states.

And, finally, the development of social inequality led to the fact that the noble families of one tribe became closer and “more dear” to the same noble families of another tribe than their own fellow tribesmen. The same explanation can be applied to caste structures.

The class structure in Ancient India was never completely ossified. The formation and development of classes with their class contradictions made themselves felt.

Laws of Manu

The main and most extensive code of ancient Indian law, morality and religion was the Laws of Manu.

The behavior of the ancient Indian was regulated by religious and legal norms for many centuries. That is why the concept of law as a set of independent norms regulating social relations did not exist.

Tradition connects the development of legal thought in India with the monuments of Vedic literature. The Vedas (Rigveda, Samaveda, etc.) - the sacred books of antiquity contain divine orders and truth for the devout Hindu. But the Vedas should be considered only as the ideological basis of law.

The Laws of Manu were compiled by one of the Brahman schools. The name of the mythical god Manu gave these laws the meaning of holiness and indisputability of religious commands. The exact time when the laws were drafted is unknown. It is assumed that they appeared after the 2nd century. BC.

The Laws of Manu consisted of 12 chapters and 2685 articles, written in the form of couplets (slokas). They interpret not only the rules of law, but also politics, morality, and religious precepts.

The collection as a whole testifies to the class nature of law, the great influence on it of the tribal system and the varna system. In Art. 108 ch. I states that dharma is the eternal “rule of life” that all people should follow. Each varna must be guided by its own dharma, i.e. a set of norms and regulations, the violation of which entailed not only religious condemnation, but also legal consequences.

The code of laws of Manu frankly shows with what unsurpassed cynicism the ruling class puts religion at its service. It more than clearly reveals its class essence. The laws of Manu had as their main goal to legitimize the varna-caste structure of society and, above all, the privileged position of the Brahmans. Evidence of this is the threats and spells addressed to kings who disrespect the brahmanas.

Other kings, obviously, had little regard for the claims of the Brahmans. There was also no equality among the Brahmins. Some were engaged in the study of the Vedas, sacrifices, training, while others were engaged in worldly affairs. Thus, in Chapter VIII it says: “Brahmins who herd cattle, engage in trade, as well as brahmanas who are artisans, actors, servants and money lenders should be treated as sudras.”

Several articles are devoted to sudras, hired workers, servants and slaves. The laws list the sources of slavery: “captured under the banner (i.e. in battle), born in the house, bought, gifted, inherited and slave by virtue of punishment.”

The Laws of Manu allowed the charging of interest on loans. They were established depending on the varna and amounted to 2% per month for a brahmana, 3% for a kshatriya, 4% for a vaishya and 5% for a sudra.

In the Mauryan era, employment contracts were widely practiced. As a rule, the hired people were Shudras, but probably among the hired workers there were also bankrupt community members and artisans who belonged to the Vaishyas. Hired workers received 1/10 of the grown crop, and those involved in cattle breeding received 1/10 of the butter churned from the milk of the cows they cared for.

The laws establish that failure to perform a contract or performance did not properly deprive the culprit of the agreed payment.

The law of obligations according to the laws of Manu provided for a general rule: a) a contract concluded by a slave, drunk, insane, minor, decrepit, unauthorized person is invalid; b) violation of the contract entailed not only civil consequences, but also such as expulsion from the state.

Criminal repression was directed against those who encroached on the inviolability and sanctity of varnas. The severity of penalties for minor violations in this area can be judged by the penalties. Slander against people of lower varnas was punishable by a fine, the amount of which depended on the social status of the slandered person. A Shudra who insulted or slandered the “twice-born” was punished by cutting out his tongue.

The talion system appears in a number of articles. “Whoever raises an arm or a leg to a higher person should have his arm or leg cut off,” says one of the shlokas of the laws of Manu.

Encroachment on private property - damage and appropriation of someone else's property - was severely punished. A distinction is made between robbery (the appropriation of someone else's property in the presence of the owner and with the use of violence) and theft. A thief caught in the act could be killed immediately; Night theft was punishable by impalement. In other cases of theft, the punishment was determined in the form of fines, the amount of which depended on the size of the stolen property and reached 11 times its value.

The code mentions various crimes against individuals: murder, bodily harm, insult. Laws jealously protected family foundations. Talking to another man's wife in a private place was considered a serious crime.

Caste differences influenced the size of fines.

The most serious crime in India was the murder of a Brahman. The criminal liability of the Brahmans themselves was different. In Art. 230 it is written: “You cannot kill a Brahmana even if he is mired in all sorts of vices; he must be expelled from the country with all his property without bodily harm.”

Punitive measures were very diverse: the death penalty, cutting off the tongue, fingers, branding, slavery, etc. The “sign of a liquor seller” was burned on the drunkard’s forehead, and the thief’s forehead was decorated with the image of a dog’s leg.

In legal proceedings, there was no clear distinction between criminal and civil proceedings. Court cases were initiated based on statements from interested parties. The main means of establishing judicial truth were testimony and various kinds of tests. The consideration of the case in the courts was adversarial in nature. The disputing parties themselves had to convince the court that they were right and present appropriate evidence for this. When making a verdict or decision, the court adhered to a formal assessment of the evidence. The court also took into account the defendant’s facial expression, his gestures, gait, “the sound of his voice and complexion.”

Slaves, children, and people with a bad reputation could not be witnesses at the trial. In case of disagreement in testimony or in cases of lack of direct evidence, the court resorted to ordeal - “God's judgment.” “He who is not burned by blazing fire, whom water makes him rise up, and to whom no misfortune soon befalls, must be considered pure in his oath.”

Torture was applied to the accused: six blows with a stick, seven lashes, two hangings and pouring water into the nose, piercing a hand with a needle, burning a finger joint, etc. Children, old people, pregnant women, as well as Brahmins, regardless of the severity of the crime, were exempt from torture.

The court was not separated from the administration.

Although India is separated from the rest of Asia by high mountain ranges, its peoples traded and fought with the states of the ancient East, exerting their influence on their military organization and military art.

The social structure of ancient India is characterized by the presence of caste division. The caste system developed at the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. Brahmins (priests), Kshatriyas (warriors) and Vaishyas (farmers, artisans and traders) constituted the dominant castes, of which the first two were considered the main ones. Moreover, each previous caste was higher in birth than the next, and honor was to be given to those who belonged to the highest caste. Shudras constituted the fourth caste - these are the disenfranchised and oppressed poor.

The warrior caste was next in number after the farmers. Warriors enjoyed the greatest freedom; they were engaged only in military affairs. Others made weapons for them, horses were also delivered to them, specially appointed workers served them in the camp, looked after their horses, cleaned weapons, drove elephants, put chariots in order and served as charioteers. The soldiers themselves, if they needed to fight, fought, but when peace was concluded, they led a cheerful life - the state gave the soldiers such a salary that they could easily feed themselves and others with it.

In battle, the Indian army made extensive use of elephants. A turret was placed on the back of the elephant, and archers armed with bows and darts were placed in it. Following the example of the Indians, the Persian kings included war elephants in their army, and after the reign of Alexander the Great, the so-called Hellenistic kingdoms.

The Indian army included infantry, war chariots, horsemen and war elephants. It is known that one of the rulers had 50 war elephants, 4 thousand horsemen and 130 thousand infantry.

Indian infantrymen used a large bow, as tall as a man, and long arrows. One end of the bow was placed on the ground, the infantryman rested his left foot on it and pulled the string as far as possible. Long arrows pierced the shield and shell. The infantryman had a leather shield the height of a man, but narrow - narrower than his torso. In addition to a bow and arrow, the infantryman was armed with a long and wide sword. The horsemen were armed with two spears for throwing (javelins) and small shields; They had no saddles, but their horses were bridled.

Before the advent of regular cavalry, war elephants were a threat to infantry. They were skillfully trained. The elephants protected their leaders, covering those who had fallen to the ground with their bodies as a shield; The elephants carried the killed leaders out of the battle.

In ancient India, cities were well defended. The fortifications consisted of walls with towers; a wide and deep ditch was usually dug around the wall. For example, the walls of the city of Palimbothra had 570 towers and more than 60 strong gates.

Wars in India were fought according to the “laws of Manu”, which forbade “killing with treacherous weapons, neither jagged arrows, nor poisonous, nor split-pointed. He [the king] should not kill the one who (in battle) stands on a platform (if he himself is on a chariot), nor the one who folds his hands (as a sign of mercy), nor the one who (runs) with flowing hair, nor the one sitting, nor the one who says: “I am yours.” Neither the one sleeping, nor the one who does not have chain mail, nor the naked, nor the unarmed, nor the one who watches the battle without taking part in it, nor the one who fights with another (enemy). Neither one whose weapon is broken, nor one stricken (with grief), nor one seriously wounded, nor one who is frightened, nor one who has fled; but in all these cases he must remember the duty of true warriors. The king must always act without deception and never attack treacherously." In the “Laws of Manu” a lot of attention is paid to setting out the duties of the king. The king must be brave in battle, protect the people and obey the Brahmins, be always ready for war, show his strength, hide his secrets and notice the weaknesses of the enemy. “Like a heron, he [the king] must consider his affairs; like a lion he must show his strength; like a wolf he must take his prey; like a hare, he must go to a safe place.” But the most important thing is maintaining military secrets. “The king whose secret plans are not known to other people... will take possession of the whole earth, even if he has a poor treasury.”

The laws required the king to “be very wary of a friend who secretly communicates with the enemy, and of fugitives (from the enemy’s camp); for these are the most dangerous enemies.”

In a favorable situation, it was prescribed to enter into battle, but it was better to achieve the goal through negotiations, gifts, and threats, since it is unknown on which side in the battle the victory would be. If all means are exhausted and the goal is not achieved, you should enter the battle well armed in order to be sure to defeat your enemies. Consequently, the laws did not exclude combat, but considered it a last resort and required careful assurance of success.

Important importance was attached to the choice of the moment of initiation of actions. It was recommended to start a war only when the subjects were satisfied with the tsar’s policy, when there was a strong and inspired army. If there is not a sufficient number of mobile combat forces (elephants, chariots, horsemen), then the troops must choose and take an advantageous position. If the enemy is stronger, it is necessary to divide the army in order to force the enemy to scatter his forces. You should go on a campaign in a favorable month. Before performing, it is imperative to take into account the condition of your troops and the possibility of victory.

Having completed preparations for war and provided the base for military operations, the laws recommended sending spies to the enemy, and then preparing three types of roads for the movement of their troops: for infantry, cavalry, war chariots and elephants.

From whatever direction danger was expected, the army moved there.

On the flanks, in front and in the rear, there were detachments of warriors who knew the signals, “skilled in repelling attacks and in attacking, undaunted and faithful.” The king was recommended to be in the center of the detachment, built “like a lotus,” that is, in a circle.

The laws paid less attention to the conduct of combat, but some instructions were given in this regard. First of all, it talked about the use of military branches depending on the nature of the terrain. “In the plains one must fight with chariots and horses, in watery areas with elephants and boats, in forested and bushy areas with bows, in hilly areas with swords, shields and (other) weapons.”

The king “must force a small number of soldiers to fight in close formation, and, if desired, advance a large number in separate ranks; or he must force them to fight by forming (a small number) in the form of a needle and (a large number) in the form of a thunder arrow.” Tall and reliable warriors must fight in the front ranks.

Before the battle, the king must inspire his army, and during the battle carefully observe the soldiers and “record their behavior during the battle.”

At the end of the battle, the king had to inspect his troops, war chariots, pack animals, weapons and ammunition.

In ancient India, war was considered a natural form of royal activity. Few people spoke out against the war, and if they did, their voices were usually not listened to. Buddhists, many of whom were merchants, opposed the war on purely economic grounds as it posed a threat to trade. The doctrines of non-violence have never extended to the conduct of hostilities. In fact, war was a kind of sport for monarchs, one of their activities that was supposed to bring them glory - this was one of the main reasons for waging war. The fact that territory or booty could be captured in the course of the war was of secondary importance; the main thing is the glorification of the king, the strengthening of his power. In works on government, war is given a special place. Many emphasized that maintaining peace is a simple matter, but war requires great intellectual effort and skill. The Arthashastra expressed itself most clearly and realistically on this matter: the weak ruler was advised to seek peace, and the strong – to strive for war, although using it as a last resort. The Arthashastra also mentions other ways of achieving the same goals that are pursued by waging war; among them, bribery and murder of those who are necessary or profitable to remove in the interests of the state. If war remains the only option, it must be waged with maximum cruelty. According to the author of the Arthashastra, talking about chivalry here is stupid and unrealistic; war is waged to achieve practical interests.

Scenes of battles described in the Mahabharata

In essence, the Arthashastra was a manual on aggressive and aggressive foreign policy and empire building. Other works, produced during the period of anarchy that took place between the fall of the Mauryas and the ascension of the Guptas, were imbued with the pessimism characteristic of the time and attempted to elevate the violence, which they considered inevitable, into a kind of ritual. The battle began to be considered good in itself, and not a single warrior should avoid it. Very soon a kind of set of rules for warfare was developed; Among them was a recommendation that if the enemy was put to flight, he could be spared. Of course, these rules were not always followed, but it can be assumed that the soldiers were instinctively guided by them, so this to some extent mitigated the cruelty of the war and the losses to which it led. For example, in ancient India, complete looting of cities was quite rare.

Typically, an army consisted of four main types of troops: cavalry, war chariots, war elephants and foot soldiers. In the rear of the combat units there was a support service. The carts that accompanied the army carried food and water for soldiers, food for animals, supplies of weapons and everything necessary for combat operations. The army was accompanied by people engaged in civil engineering work, whose task was to lay trenches and erect earthworks; as well as carpenters, blacksmiths and doctors. The Arthashastra lays out a plan for the deployment of a mobile hospital, fully equipped with nurses, medicines and dressings with a team of doctors, orderlies; Based on other sources, we can conclude that such hospitals actually existed. The elephants and horses were cared for by veterinarians. According to some sources, there were also female cooks. The army was accompanied by a number of courtiers - ministers, the royal priest-confessor, astrologers who were supposed to calculate the most favorable time for the attack - and several harem princesses.

During campaigns, war elephants played an extremely important role. Books on military affairs analyze in detail the actions of this type of troops. The animals were prepared very carefully. In practice, they served simultaneously as a tank and a bulldozer. Their task was to break walls, palisades, gates, as well as enemy infantry formations. They paved the way for the army through the jungles and forests. Elephants were often protected by leather armor, sometimes covered with metal plates, and sharp iron tips were placed on their tusks. On each elephant, in addition to the driver, sat two or three warriors armed with bows, javelins and long spears. Infantry and sometimes cavalry protected the elephants from attack. Elephants were at the forefront of the army and were supposed to instill fear in the enemy - which they did - especially if he had seen war elephants for the first time and had no experience of meeting them on the battlefield.

Unfortunately, the foreign invaders soon found a way to use elephants against the Indian army itself. Despite their excellent training, elephants easily panic, especially if they see fire. Panic quickly spreads from one animal to all the others, and they begin to throw off the warriors and drivers and trample their own soldiers. But although this happened quite often, the Indians never lost faith in the fighting qualities of their elephants.

The cavalry was not distinguished by either the good training of its riders or the endurance of its horses. One of the reasons for the relatively low mobility of the Indian cavalry was that before battles the horses were given plenty of wine. The rider was protected by chest armor and armed with a spear, sword, and sometimes a bow.

By the time of the Guptas, war chariots were largely obsolete, and even before the Guptas they were not used so actively. The light chariot of the Vedic era gave way to a heavy and bulky one, which was harnessed to four horses and on which, in addition to the driver, there was an archer and two warriors. The driver sitting on the box was an easy target for enemy arrows.

In military textbooks, very little space is devoted to the actions of infantrymen, although, of course, the infantry was the basis of the army and formed its backbone. The foot warrior was armed with a bow and arrows hanging in a quiver, a sword, a shield and was dressed in light armor. Specially selected infantrymen formed a detachment of the king's bodyguards.

According to many military textbooks, the basic fighting unit of an army was a squad (patti), consisting of one elephant, one chariot, three fully equipped horsemen and five foot soldiers; The 21,870 pattis, organized into larger units and formations, constituted an army. The Arthashastra states that the unit consisted of 45 elephants, 45 chariots, 225 horsemen and 675 foot soldiers. Five such units constituted a separate combat formation. Of course, there is no evidence that all the formations were equipped in this way, however, of course, the Indian armies were huge. Chandragupta's army numbered 600 thousand people; and as Xuan Jiang notes, Harsha’s army at the time of his power consisted of 66 war elephants and 200 cavalry.

The ancient Indian army was armed in accordance with the traditions of that time. It had heavy weapons - devices for throwing stones, rams, etc. Incendiary weapons - burning arrows and balls - were widely used during hostilities. The Indian warrior's bow, 1 m 80 cm long, was made of bamboo; they shot from it long arrows cut from reeds; the arrowhead was often poisoned. Foot soldiers usually used double-edged swords, spears and javelins, iron maces and battle axes.

Warrior with spear and sword

When a fortress was besieged, a camp was set up around it, and around it, in turn, trenches were dug and earthen fortifications were erected. The king and his entourage were located in the center. The camp looked more like a modern city; In addition to the soldiers, there were many people accompanying the army, including merchants and prostitutes. The siege was intended to starve the enemy out and force him to surrender or to leave the fortress and engage in battle. But usually the cities were taken by storm; the art of making tunnels was well developed.

The king in a palanquin surrounded by bodyguards

The battle required careful and serious preparation. If time permitted, astrologers carefully studied the omens to determine the most appropriate time to begin the battle. On the evening before the battle, special rituals were held. The Brahmins and the king addressed the warriors, promising them glory and rich booty in case of victory, and also emphasizing that those who died in battle would immediately go to heaven. It was believed that the gods should support the king, so they prayed, asking for support and help.

In battle, the following battle formation was usually used: heavily armed infantry were located in the center, and lightly armed warriors, chariots and cavalry were located on the flanks. War elephants were also located in the center; archers were usually covered by infantrymen. The king's headquarters was located in the center of the rearguard. The beginning of the battle was accompanied by the howling of shells and the beating of gongs and drums. Soon the ground trembled from the stomping of elephants. The rushing chariots and cavalry raised clouds of dust, through which one could see the banners carried by the foot soldiers.

By evening the battle stopped and resumed at dawn. At night, wounded people and animals were taken to the camp and provided with the necessary medical care. Weapons were collected and repaired whenever possible. The dead were piled on top of each other - representatives of each class separately - and cremated. Prisoners were sometimes destroyed, despite the fact that this was prohibited by law; True, the authors of the laws were not on the battlefield. However, such massacres occurred quite rarely. Usually the prisoners were released after receiving a ransom for them. Those who could not pay were enslaved, but were released after the person worked off the ransom amount.

Upon the king’s return to the capital after a victorious battle, festive ceremonies began in the city, and the military went home and prepared for the next war. Both the king and the soldiers fulfilled their task: the king defended the state, and he and the soldiers covered themselves with glory. Everyone was thus happy and satisfied, with the exception of the widows and orphans of the dead. The best works of Sanskrit poetry are dedicated to their suffering.

India is an ancient country approximately 8 thousand years old. The amazing Indian people lived on its territory. Which were divided into several social classes. Where priests played an important role. Although historians do not know who ruled such an amazing state. The Indians had their own language and writing. Their writings cannot be deciphered by scientists to this day. The ancient Indians gave humanity such agricultural crops as cotton and sugar cane. They made thin chintz fabric. They domesticated the largest animal in the world, the elephant. They revered and believed in different gods. Warriors of ancient India. Animals were deified. Along with the gods, the Vedas, the Sanskrit language and the Brahmins were revered as guardians of culture and sacred knowledge. Brahmins were considered living gods. This is a very interesting state and people.

Ancient state of India

Location and nature. In the south of Asia, beyond the Himalayan range, there is an amazing country - India. Its history goes back almost 8 thousand years. However, modern India differs in size from the ancient country of the same name. Ancient India was approximately equal in area to Egypt, Mesopotamia, Asia Minor, Iran, Syria, Phenicia and Palestine combined. This vast territory had a variety of natural conditions. In the west, the Indus River flowed; it rained relatively rarely, but in the summer there were large floods. Spacious steppes spread out here. In the east, the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers carried their waters to the Indian Ocean. It always rained heavily here, and the entire land was covered with marshy swamps and impenetrable jungle. These are dense thickets of trees and bushes, where twilight reigns even during the day. The jungle was home to tigers, panthers, elephants, poisonous snakes and a huge variety of insects. In ancient times, the central and southern parts of India were mountainous areas where it was always hot and there was a lot of rain. But the abundance of moisture was not always a good thing. Dense vegetation and swamps were a great obstacle for ancient farmers, armed with stone and copper axes. Therefore, the first settlements appeared in India in the less forested north-west of the country. The Indus Valley had another advantage. It was closer to the ancient states of Western Asia, which facilitated communication and trade with them.

Formation of states in Ancient India

So far, scientists have little information about the social structure and culture of Indian cities. The fact is that the writing of the ancient Indians has not yet been deciphered. But today it is known that in the 3rd and first half of the 2nd millennium BC. e. in the Indus Valley there was a single state with two capitals. These are Harappa in the north and Mohenjo-Daro in the south. Residents were divided into several social classes. It is not known exactly who ruled the state. But the priests played a big role. With the decline of the Indus state, the social organization also disintegrated. Writing was forgotten. Appearing in the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. e., the Aryans brought with them their social organization. It was based on the division of society into “us” (Aryans) and “strangers” (Dasas). Using the right of conquerors, the Aryans gave the Dasas a dependent position in society. There was also division among the Aryans themselves. They were divided into three estates - varnas. The first and highest varna were the brahmans - priests, teachers, guardians of culture. The second varna is kshatriyas. It consisted of military nobility. The third varna - Vaishyas - included farmers, artisans and traders. At the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. e. the fourth varna appeared - the sudras. It means "servant". This varna included all non-Aryans. They were obliged to serve the first three varnas. The lowest position was occupied by the “untouchables.” They did not belong to any of the varnas and were obliged to do the dirtiest work. With the development of crafts, population growth and the complication of social life, in addition to varnas, an additional division into professions appeared. This division is called caste division. And a person fell into a certain varna, like a caste, by right of birth. If you are born in a brahmana family, you are a brahmana; if you are born in a sudra family, you are a sudra. Belonging to one or another varna and caste determined the rules of behavior of every Indian. Further development of Indian society led in the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. to the emergence of kingdoms led by rajas. (In ancient Indian, “raja” means “king.”) At the end of the 4th century. BC e. A powerful empire is formed in India. Its founder was Chandragupta, who stopped the advance of the army of Alexander the Great. This power reached its greatest power under Chandragupta's grandson Ashok (263-233 BC). Thus, already in the III-early II millennium BC. e. There was a state in India. It was not only not inferior in its development, but at times surpassed Egypt and Mesopotamia. After the decline of the Indus culture and the arrival of the Aryans, the social structure of ancient Indian society became more complex. Its culture was created by the Aryans with the participation of the local population. At this time, a caste system took shape. A mighty empire arose. Changing, ancient Indian culture has existed to this day.

Economic life

Already in the 3rd millennium BC. e. The main occupation of the people of the Indus Valley was agriculture. Wheat, barley, peas, millet, jute and, for the first time in the world, cotton and sugar cane were grown. Livestock farming was well developed. The Indians raised cows, sheep, goats, pigs, donkeys, and elephants. The horse appeared later. The Indians were well acquainted with metallurgy. The main tools were made of copper. Warriors of ancient India. Knives, spear and arrow tips, hoes, axes and much more were smelted from it. Artistic casting, masterful stone processing, and alloys, among which bronze occupied a special place, were no secret to them. The Indians knew gold and lead. But at that time they did not know iron. Crafts were also developed. Spinning and weaving played an important role. The craftsmanship of the jewelers is impressive. They processed precious metals and stones, ivory and shells. Sea and land trade reached a high level. In 1950, archaeologists found the first port in history for ships to moor at low tide. The most active trade was with Southern Mesopotamia. Cotton and jewelry were brought here from India. Barley, vegetables, and fruits were brought to India. There were trade relations with Egypt and the island of Crete. Probably, the Indians exchanged with neighboring nomadic peoples and even built a city on the Amu Darya River. With the decline of Indian culture, economic life came to a standstill. Appeared in the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. e. The Aryans were nomads and lagged significantly behind the Indians in economic development. The only thing in which the Aryans were ahead of the Indians was in the use of horses. Only at the turn of the 2nd - 1st millennia BC. e. the new population of India - the Indians - again switched to agriculture. Wheat, barley, millet, cotton and jute crops appeared. The farmers of the Ganges River valley reaped especially large harvests. Along with horses and cattle, the elephant occupied an important place in the economy. With its help, people successfully fought the impenetrable jungle. Metallurgy is developing. Having quickly mastered bronze, already at the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. e. Indians learned to mine iron. This greatly facilitated the development of new lands previously occupied by swamps and jungles. Crafts are also being revived. Once again, pottery and weaving occupy a prominent place in the economy. Indian cotton fabrics were especially famous, products from which could be threaded through a small ring. These fabrics were very expensive. They were named calico in honor of the goddess of arable land Sita. There were also simpler, cheaper fabrics. Only trade remained at a low level. It was limited to the exchange of goods between neighboring communities. Thus, the ancient Indians gave humanity such agricultural crops as cotton and sugarcane. They domesticated the largest animal in the world, the elephant.

CULTURE OF ANCIENT INDIAN

Languages ​​and writing of Ancient India. At the end of the 3rd millennium BC. e. India was a major power with a highly developed culture. But it is not yet known what language the inhabitants of the Indus Valley spoke. Their writing still remains a mystery to scientists. The first Indian inscriptions date back to the 25th - 14th centuries. BC e. The Indus script, which has no similarity, has 396 hieroglyphic characters. They wrote on copper tablets or clay shards, scratching the written signs. The number of characters in one inscription rarely exceeds 10, and the largest number is 17. Unlike the Indian language, the language of the ancient Indians is well known to scientists. It is called Sanskrit. This word translated means “perfect.” Many modern Indian languages ​​arose from Sanskrit. It contains words similar to Russian and Belarusian. For example: Vedas; sveta—holy (holiday), brahmana-rahmana (meek). The gods and brahmins were considered the creators of Sanskrit and its guardians. Every person who considered himself an Aryan was required to know this language. “Strangers,” both Shudras and untouchables, had no right to study this language under pain of severe punishment.

Literature

Nothing is known about Indian literature. But the literature of the ancient Indians is a huge heritage for all humanity. The oldest works of Indian literature are the Vedas, written between 1500 and 1000 BC. BC e. The Vedas (literally wisdom) are sacred books in which all the most important knowledge for the ancient Indians was recorded. Their truthfulness and usefulness have never been disputed. The entire spiritual life of the ancient Indians was created on the basis of the Vedas. Therefore, Indian culture of the 1st millennium BC. e. called Vedic culture. Apart from the Vedas, Indian culture has produced a wide variety of works. All of them were written in Sanskrit. Many of them are included in the treasury of world literature. Warriors of ancient India. The first place in this series belongs to the great poems “Mahabharata” and “Ramayana”. The Mahabharata talks about the struggle of the sons of King Pandu for the right to rule the kingdom. The Ramayana tells the story of the life and exploits of Prince Rama. The poems describe the life of ancient Indians, their wars, beliefs, customs and adventures. In addition to great poems, Indians have created wonderful fairy tales, fables, myths and legends. Many of these works, translated into modern languages, are not forgotten to this day.

Religion of Ancient India

We know little about the religions of the ancient Indians. However, it is known that they believed in a mother goddess, a three-faced herdsman god, and some species of flora and fauna. Among the holy animals, the bull stood out. There was probably a cult of water, as evidenced by the numerous pools in Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro. The Indians also believed in the other world. We know much more about the religions of the ancient Indians. Vedic culture created two great religions of the East at once - Hinduism and Buddhism. Hinduism originates from the Vedas. The Vedas are the first and main sacred books of Hinduism. Ancient Hinduism is different from modern Hinduism. But these are different stages of the same religion. Hindus did not believe in one god, but worshiped many. Chief among them were the god of fire Agni, the formidable god of water Varuna, the helper god and guardian of all Mitra, as well as the god of gods, the great destroyer - the six-armed Shiva. His image is similar to the ancient Indian god - the patron of cattle. The idea of ​​Shiva is proof of the influence of the culture of the local population on the beliefs of the Aryan newcomers. Along with the gods, the Vedas, the Sanskrit language and the Brahmins were revered as guardians of culture and sacred knowledge. Brahmins were considered living gods. Around the 6th century. BC e. A new religion appears in India, which was destined to become global. It is named after its first supporter, Buddha, which means “enlightened one.” Buddhism has no belief in gods, does not recognize anything that exists. The only saint is Buddha himself. For a long time there were no temples, priests or monks in Buddhism. The equality of people was proclaimed. The future of every person depends on correct behavior in society. Buddhism spread very quickly in India. In the II century. BC e. Emperor Ashoka adopted Buddhism. But at the beginning of our era, Buddhism was supplanted from India by Hinduism and began to spread to more eastern countries. It was at this time that the main sacred book of modern Hinduism appeared - “Bhagavad Gita” - “Divine Song”. A hunter and two pigeons (excerpt from the Mahabharata as retold by Y. Kupala) There lived a hunter in India. Without pity, he killed birds in the forest to sell them at the market. He separated bird families, forgetting the law of the gods.

INTERESTING ABOUT INDIA
Excavations at Mahenjo-Daro

In 1921-1922 a great archaeological discovery was made. Archaeologists excavated a city three kilometers from the Indus River. Its length and elevation were 5 km. It was protected from river floods by artificial embankments. The city itself was divided into 12 roughly equal blocks. They had smooth, straight streets. The central block was raised to a height of 6-12 m. The elevation, made of clay and mud brick, was defended by square brick towers. This was the main part of the city.

Indian social structure according to ancient laws

For the sake of the prosperity of the worlds, Brahma created from his mouth, hands, thighs and feet, respectively, a brahmana, a kshatriya, a vaishya and a sudra. Specific activities were established for each of them. Education, study of sacred books, sacrifice for oneself and sacrifice for others, distribution and receipt of alms, Brahma established for brahmanas. Brahman is always first. Brahma instructed the kshatriyas to guard his subjects, distribute alms, make sacrifices, study sacred books, and not adhere to human pleasures. But under no circumstances does a kshatriya have the right to take more than a fourth of the harvest of his subjects. Cattle breeding, almsgiving, sacrifice, study of holy books, trade, money matters and agriculture were given to the Vaishyas by Brahma. But Brahma gave only one occupation to the sudras - serving the first three with humility.

Conclusion

To summarize, we can say that we know a lot about India. Although in the history of this ancient state there are still many blank spots that will someday be revealed to us. And everyone will learn about the greatness of Ancient India. World literature will receive priceless works of Indian authors. Archaeologists will excavate new cities. Historians will write interesting books. And we will learn a lot of new things. Let's pass on our knowledge to the future generation without loss.

India is one of the oldest civilizations on the planet. The culture of this country influenced both nearby countries and regions thousands of kilometers away from Hindustan. Indian civilization arose at the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC. e. In archeology it is usually called Proto-Indian or Harappan. Already at that time, writing existed here, cities (Mohenjedaro, Harappa) with a thoughtful layout, developed production, centralized water supply and sewerage. Indian civilization gave the world chess and the decimal number system. The achievements of ancient and medieval India in the field of science, literature and art, the various religious and philosophical systems that arose in India, influenced the development of many civilizations of the East, and became an integral part of modern world culture. India is a huge country in southern Asia, stretching from the icy peaks of the Karakoram and the Himalayas to the equatorial waters of Cape Kumari, from the sultry deserts of Rajasthan to the swampy jungles of Bengal. India includes magnificent beaches on the ocean coast in Goa and ski resorts in the Himalayas. The cultural diversity of India amazes the imagination of anyone who arrives here for the first time. Traveling around the country, you understand that diversity is the soul of India. Once you drive a few hundred kilometers, you notice how the terrain, climate, food, clothing, and even music, fine arts, and crafts have changed. India can dazzle with its beauty, captivate with its hospitality, and puzzle with its contradictions. Therefore, everyone has to discover their own India. After all, India is not just another world, but many different worlds united into one. The country's constitution alone lists 15 main languages, and the total number of languages ​​and dialects, according to scientists, reaches 1652. India is the birthplace of many religions - Hinduism, comparable to the layer of Abrahamic religions (Judaism, Islam, Christianity), Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism. And at the same time, India is the largest Muslim country - the third largest in the world in terms of the number of followers (after Indonesia and Bangladesh). India is a federal state (according to the constitution, it is a union of states). India has 25 states and 7 union territories. States: Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Goa, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Tripura, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal. The seven union territories include - Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Chandigarh, Dadra and Nagarhaveli, Daman and Diu, Delhi, Lakshadweep and Puttucherry (Pondicherry). The head of state is the president. In practice, executive power is exercised by the prime minister. The capital of India is Delhi. The area of ​​the republic is 3.28 million sq. km. The country is bordered in the west by Pakistan, in the north by China, Nepal and Bhutan, and in the east by Bangladesh and Myanmar. From the southwest it is washed by the waters of the Arabian Sea, from the southeast by the Bay of Bengal.

India is a country with unique traditions (Ancient India). The history of India is the history of an entire civilization. And the culture of India is a unique achievement of mankind. The geography of India is vast. The country amazes with its diversity of natural areas. India can be roughly divided into four parts. Northern India is, first of all, the unique city of Delhi (the capital of the state). The most incredible architectural monuments are collected here, the leading place among which is occupied by numerous religious buildings. Moreover, in Delhi you can find temples of literally all world religions. In terms of the number of museums, the city will easily surpass any capital in the world. Be sure to visit the National Museum, the Archaeological Museum of the Red Fort, the National Gallery of Modern Art, the National Museum of Natural History, etc. At your service there will be thousands of retail outlets, unique oriental bazaars with their indescribable flavor, familiar to us from children's fairy tales, which is definitely worth plunging into . If you prefer a holiday by the sea, then Western India and Goa are for you. It is in this state that there are numerous beaches, magnificent hotels, a lot of entertainment complexes, casinos and restaurants. South India is the most densely populated part of the country, the area where hundreds of ancient Tamil temples and colonial forts are located. There are also sandy beaches here. Eastern India is associated primarily with the city of Kolkata, the administrative center of the state of West Bengal and the largest city in the country, one of the ten largest cities in the world. To travel to this country you need a visa, for which you will have to visit the Indian Embassy. And one more piece of advice. India is a country next to which the mysterious Nepal is located, don’t forget about the excursion. You are already dreaming about India.

Don't judge a person by what views he holds, but judge by what he achieves with them.